Precursor Concentration-Dependent Sol–Gel Dynamics in Neodymium Oxide: From Gel Framework to Electrochemical Functionality in Asymmetric Supercapacitors

Abstract

Rare-earth oxides possess distinctive electronic configurations, tunable oxidation states, and inherent structural robustness, making them highly attractive for advanced energy storage applications. Among these, neodymium oxide (Nd<inf>2</inf>O<inf>3</inf>) stands out due to its high surface redox activity, structural stability, and favorable band alignment, enabling efficient charge storage in electrochemical devices. In this study, Nd<inf>2</inf>O<inf>3</inf> electrodes were synthesized via a sol–gel method with systematically varied precursor concentrations (1 mM, 3 mM, and 5 mM) to elucidate the impact of synthesis on crystallinity, morphology, and electrochemical performance. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed the formation of the hexagonal Nd<inf>2</inf>O<inf>3</inf> phase, with the 3 mM sample (Nd-2) exhibiting the sharpest reflections, indicative of enhanced crystallinity and reduced lattice defects. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed trivalent Nd species and both lattice and surface oxygen, providing abundant redox-active sites. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) showed Nd-2 possessed a hierarchically interconnected fibrous network decorated with fine granules, maximizing active surface area and facilitating rapid ion diffusion. Electrochemical testing demonstrated that Nd-2 achieved an areal capacitance of 20 F cm−2, a diffusion-controlled pseudocapacitive contribution of ~84.9%, and retained 86.3% capacitance over 12,000 cycles. An asymmetric supercapacitor with Nd-2 and activated carbon delivered an energy density of 0.132 mWh cm−2, power density of 1.8 mW/cm2, and 81.1% capacitance retention over 7000 cycles. These results highlight the critical role of precursor concentration in tailoring structure and electrochemical performance, establishing Nd<inf>2</inf>O<inf>3</inf> as a promising electrode for high-performance energy storage devices. © 2025 by the authors.