Electrochemical biosensors based on the 3D immobilization of capture probes for influenza virus detection

Abstract

Influenza viruses pose a significant global health threat, particularly to vulnerable groups such as young children, the elderly, and individuals with underlying health conditions. Accurate and early detection is vital for effective disease management and the prevention of viral transmission. However, traditional diagnostic methods, including viral cultures, rapid antigen detection, and polymerase chain reaction, often face limitations associated with their sensitivity, turnaround time, cost, and/or accessibility, which hinder their effectiveness in real-world settings. Electrochemical biosensors have recently gained attention as innovative diagnostic tools because they deliver highly sensitive and specific results quickly, making them ideal for point-of-care testing. Incorporating three-dimensional (3D) structured materials can enhance biosensor performance by expanding the binding surface area for biorecognition probes and optimizing signal transduction mechanisms. This review highlights the current understanding of influenza viruses and presents the latest developments in electrochemical biosensing technologies. We emphasize the integration of materials such as metal nanoparticles, carbon-based materials, and metal-organic and covalent-organic framework-based materials that can provide 3D surfaces. These strategies enable the sensitive and selective detection of multiple influenza strains. The development of 3D probe immobilization technologies and biosensor engineering has shown promise for practical clinical implementation and large-scale diagnostic use, potentially contributing to improved influenza surveillance and public health outcomes. © 2025 The Royal Society of Chemistry.