Ethical, legal, social, and cultural implications of the non-clinical use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in Korea and Japan

Abstract

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuroscience technique that modulates brain activity by applying a weak electric current to the scalp. tDCS is already used in hospitals to alleviate symptoms of neurological diseases and mental disorders. However, it can also be purchased over the Internet without medical authorization or oversight. In such cases, experts have raised concerns about potential health side effects and unforeseen social issues resulting from the misuse of tDCS and called for a thorough analysis of the broad societal implications of its non-clinical use. To address these concerns, this study explored the ethical, legal, social, and cultural issues related to the use of tDCS outside its authorized medical applications, focusing on South Korean and Japanese societies as case studies. We employed an Integration Workflow and XYZ approach specifically designed to analyze the implications of emerging neurotechnologies. Our findings highlighted several areas of concern: safety, effectiveness, fairness, lack of regulation in both sports and non-sports sectors, insufficient critical information from device manufacturers, hype and exaggerated claims, and use for enhancement in meritocratic competitions. We anticipate that our study's findings will inform the future development of tDCS devices and encourage public engagement through discussions involving key stakeholders, including device manufacturers and policymakers. © 2025 The Authors